The "1948
Revolution" announced the need in Romania for "equal and full
education for all" and the Ministry of Public education was established.
Education is secular, the school system being separate from the Church, and the
State organizes and control education at all levels. It is free and available
to one and all; State grants are awarded to pupils and students of merit. Each
year, the State allocates an increasing sum of money for education and new
facilities are constancy being built.
A characteristic feature of
Romanian education is that each stage allows the pupil to continue his
education, according to his abilities and knowledge. Teachers in Romania are
particularly revered and a national "School Teachers' Day" is
observed in June.
There is also considerable
emphasis laid on adult education, originally initiated in order to wipe out
illiteracy. P, nation‑wide system of extra‑curricular education allows adult
pupils to obtain a certificate which corresponds to that of the day‑school
course.
Schools have also been built
for the children of national minorities where lessons are given in their mother‑tongue.
From the 18th century in
Romania to the present day there has been tremendous progress in the field of
sciences; from the second half of the 19th century mathematics and medicine
also began to develop.
Great scientists of the 20th
century include the physicist, D. Hurmuzesco, the chemist, C.I. Istrate and the
biologist, G. Antipa.
Scientific research is today
the domain of the Romanian Academy, higher educational institutes, and some
institutes controlled by certain ministries. These institutes are equipped with
the most modern laboratories and equipment.
Romanian mathematicians have
made valuable contributions to various theories; in the field of physics,
research has been made into high energy physics and nuclear physics, while
chemistry has concentrated on the development of the proper use of natural
resources. Academicians, such as Murgulesco and G. Spaco have gained a
reputation in the field of theoretical and applied chemistry.
In the field of technical
sciences, the Institute of Energetic of the Romanian Academy carries out
research in the development of the country's power supply resources. Research
has also been undertaken in aerodynamics and in a variety of branches of the
same field.
Agricultural research has
achieved considerable results in re‑afforestation, the controls of erosion and
the rehabilitation of poorer lands. Certain varieties of spring and winter
wheat and other cereals have been improved, as well as some breeds of cattle.
Specialist work in the field
of medicine is well known throughout the world. Advances have been made in the
study and treatment of epilepsy, cardiovascular and respiratory conditions and
other ailments. Very important discoveries in geriatrics have been made by
professor Parhon and Dr. Ana Aslan, his pupil.
Other important contributions
have been made in the fields of social sciences, philosophy, psychology,
economics and linguistics.
The first written literature
in the 16th century was mainly religious, and it was only in the 17th and 18th
centuries that literature really began to take shape. Characteristic of the
writings of the period up to the 1848 revolution were satirical criticisms of
feudalism works such as the "Gypsy Epic" by lon Budai‑Deleanu.
Love poems and pastorals had
for long been an oral tradition. From the end of the 18th century, patriotic ideas
began to replace lave, and works by the Vacarescu family and the poet Costache
Conaki were printed.
The 19th century saw the rise
of political and cultural groups, schools and newspapers and many more
established literary figures. Some of the names of this period include : ‑
Gheorghe Asachi, Anton Pann (collection of folk poetry), Grigore Alexandrescu
(poet) and even more important : ‑ Vasile Alecsandri (founder of Romanian
dramatic literature), Nicolae Balcescu (historical and philosophical works),
the greatest poet, Mihail Eminescu, B.P. Hasdeu (prose, verse and historical plays)
A. Vlahuta (poet), I.L. Caragiale (playwright and novelist], I. Creanga and
many, many others.
Towards the end of the 19th
century there was an evident growth in critical reviews and the various
literary genres continued to develop, especially the novel, which, however, did
not really reach maturity until after the First World War.
Symbolism vied with
Traditionalism during the early years of the 20th century; in the inter‑war
period many of the ideas rife in Europe were echoed in Romania. Some of the
outstanding writers of this period include Mihail Sadoveanu (works on the life
of the Romanian peasant), the novelist Livii‑ Rebreanu and Cezar Petrescu, and
the poet novelist and journalist Tudor Arghezi.
Today ‑ Romania boasts
distinguished figures in ali literary fields : poets such as Mihai Beniuc
Toparceanu, Miraulescu Maria Banus and Cicerone Thoodorescu; and novelists like
Carril Petrescu, lon Pas and Zaharia Stancu, are to mention just a very few from
a very large selection.
Romanian drama is rooted in
the tradition of folk plays which stretches a long way back finto
"history" but drama, as we know it today, did not take shape until
the 19th century. The 19th century cultural societies aimed at the
establishment of a Romanian national theatre.
Translations of foreign
dramatic works had been performed since the end of the 18th century but by the
19th century progressive political leaders who were at the same time active
supporters of the national cultural movement began to press for the development
of the Romanian theatre. The writer Alecsandri, for example, devoted much of
his time to the writing of comic and satirical plays.
After the 1948 revolution,
both a romantic and a realistic school existed and plays were performed not
only in Bucharest but also the provincial centers.
Important critics, such as
the poet Mihail Eminescu, helped Romanian dramatic art along its way to
maturity. A Dramatic Society was formed which united various members of acting
companies and the different forms of original drama flourished. Great actors
such as Manolescu, Romanescu and Demetriad, besides 'talented producers like
Paul Gusty, are a reflection of this dynamic and innovating period, where the
old traditions coexisted with the new and laid the foundations for the 20th
century.
Under the New People's
Government the emphasis in the theatre, as in all other fields, was laid on
change the public now included, for the first time, the workers; new theatres
were built to meet the increased theatergoing public and many amateur dramatic
companies were formed. The new drama inevitably reflects the life and ideas of
the "new" Romania and the playwrights Fulga, Demetrius, Lovinescu,
Baranga, Davidoglu and Mirodan ‑ are the new spokesmen of the people.
Some of the best known actors
and actresses are Radu Beligan, Costache Antoniu, and George Calboreanu; Aura
Buzescu, Rachiteanu and Dina Cocea.
Cinema : Progress has been
made since the war, after the building of the New Buftea Studios. A series of
successes have made it internationally known.
The oldest traces of art in
Romania date from the Neolithic period. Those who occupied the country
thousands of years ago created a distinctive geometrically ornamented style
which characterizes some of the traditional folk art to this day. Early
painting in Romania (largely murals in churches) reveals a strong Byzantine influent.
In the early Middle Ages the
historical circumstances did not encourage the growth of art. From the 14th
century, the number of buildings increased and one can see the mingling of
local tradition with influents from the south and west.
The 14th century princely
church of St. Nicholas at Curtea de Argesh shows one of the finest specimens of
mediaeval painting in the country.
The birth of the Moldovian
style belongs to the reign of Stephen the Great. The Moldovian churches are of
particular interest for their exterior murals and the expressive, realistic portraits
of the church founders. (See Suceava ‑ Vatra Dornei ‑ Tirgu Muresh route).
In the final period of feudal
art, during the 17th and 18th centuries, painters such as Pirvu Mutu created
real artistic treasures for the generations who followed them to admire. The Russian
icon painters who carne to Romanian principalities, influenced Romanian art
even in mural paintings, tending towards works of a smaller size with more
detailed workmanship.
The 19th century saw the
establishment of secular art. Many foreign artists, mostly Hungarian and
Austrian, found favor in Romania as portrait painters; some settled and
established schools.
Early 19th century Romanian
painters ‑ C. Leca and G. Tattarescu painted historical pictures and
allegorical compositions, besides portraits. Nicolae Balcescu, the writer,
formed a center for younger artists including lon Negulici, and Constantin
Daniel Rosenthal who were more interested in current western trends than the
old school based on religious themes. They attempted to introduce allegorical
portraits which would convey not only the body but the "soul" as
well.
Theodor Aman is the figure of
the 19th, century. His self portrait was accepted at the Paris Salon when he
was only 23. His works include a series of paintings describing scenes from the
history of Wallachia and Moldova, and portraits of some of his famous
contemporaries. He is considered the founder of the Romanian school of
painting.
The two most important
Romanian painters of the 19th century were Nicolae Grigorescu and lon
Andreescu. Both are considered great colorists of the period, particularly
Grigorescu, who ranks with some of the French masters, and is considered one of
the greatest Romanian painters.
The early 20th century
artists were subject to various foreign influents, and experimentation in
general. A few of the names of this period include : Stefan Luchian and Octav
Bancila, who were particularly concerned in conveying the social problems of
the time; Theodor Pallady, Gheorghe Petrascu and especially N. Tonita.
Contemporary Romanian
painting has won considerable acclaim abroad and many exhibitions have been
held displaying the works of artists such as D. Gheata, interpreter of folk art
in particular, A. Ciucurenco, colorist, and C. Baba, realist.
Sculpture was initiated in
the 19th century by 1. Georgesco. The 20th century sculptors who followed after
him include lon Jalea, Cornei Medrea, D. Paciura, Fritz Storck, son of the
famous 19th century sculptor, Karl Storck, Constantin Brancusi and Geza Vida.
"Popular"
architecture really started to develop in feudal times in the form of wooden
houses and churches, which vary according to the district and the local materials.
Today's houses and churches dating from the 17th and 18th centuries are modeled
on those of feudal times.
The first stone and brick
buildings were built in Transylvania during the 12th and 13th centuries.
Fortified citadels, abbey churches and fortified churches are characteristic of
Wallachia and Moldova as well as Transylvania.
Many Gothic buildings are to
be found in Transylvania, especially noteworthy are the Black Church in Brashov
and the Roman Catholic Cathedral at Cluj. Gothic style is also found in secular
buildings including many castles in Transylvania.
Transylvania was also the
place where Romanian Renaissance style first appeared. Of particular interest
are the private houses in Cluj, Sibiu and Bistritza.
Saxon churches can be seen in
the Birsa, Fagarash, Sibiu and Bistritza areas while a Baroque style somewhat
more subdued than that of western Europe can be seen in most Transylvanian
towns.
Religious buildings
characterize the mediaeval architecture to be found in Wallachia and Moldova.
In the 14th century, Wallachian architecture in particular Game under Byzantine
and Serbian influent.
A national style of
architecture began to develop around the 15th and 16th centuries. One of the
outstanding architectural works from this period is the church of the Dealu
Monastery, near Tirgovistíte.
Constantin Brincoveanu, who
reigned during the late 17th century and early 18th century, was the
"founder" of the Brincoveanu style ‑ a highly decorative style ‑
examples of which can be seen in the Antim and Vacareshti monasteries and the
Mogoshoaia and Brincoveanu palaces.
The Churches of the reign of
Stephen the Great, from the mid ‑ 15th century to the early 16th century are to
be found mainly in Moldova. They are distinctive because of their height and
their towers, as well as their facades which are frequently highly decorated.
The most famous example of this style is the Voronetz Church. (See Suceava ‑
Vatra Dornei ‑ Tirgu Muresh route).
A closer political
relationship between Wallachia and Moldova brought a more unified style in the
principalities, which was also influenced by Russian classical architecture.
With the approach of the
modern period, large scale town planning was carried out, including the
rebuilding of Giurgiu and Braila, new harbors on the Danube and the Black Sea,
new roads and railways. The emphasis now was on the secular rather than the
religious and on international rather than national architecture. New towns,
new suburbs, and numerous public buildings are the mark of the unprecedented
development that has begun after the Second World War.
Modern Romanian music first
appears in the 19th century. The musicians of this period firmly established
the base for Romanian music; permanent symphony orchestras were formed and
attempts were made to create a Romanian National Opera.
The outstanding name in the
history of Romanian music is, of course, George Enescu. He was the first to
bring international recognition of Romanian music. Some of his works are based
on folk melodies. Not only was he a gifted composer, but also a performer,
achieving world fame as a violinist and conductor.
Prior to the Second World War
are vocal and choral music composers such as lon Vidu, Gheorghe Cucu, Ciprian
Porumbescu and in particular, the vocal symphony composer, Pau)
Constantintescu; composers of ballet music ‑Mihail Jora and Zeno Vancea; and
many other composers of opera, symphonies and chamber music. The inter‑war
period saw a number of talented pianists and conductors, including Aurelia
Cionca tonel Perles, Dinu Lipatti and George Georgesco.
Since the establishment of
the Republic, a great deal of encouragement has been given to the field of
music. Special theatres have been built, titles of merit and state prizes
awarded.
Music is a highly appreciated
art in Romania as the George Enescu Festival and Competition, which is held by
the State, suggests. It is worth adding that Romanian music is also highly
appreciated abroad too.